Introduction to Psychology

Full Answer Section

Constructive Process: The idea that memory is not a passive recording but an active process influenced by our beliefs, expectations, and other cognitive factors.

Distributed Practice: Spacing out learning sessions over time to enhance retention.

Elaborative Rehearsal:

Actively relating new information to existing knowledge to improve memory.

Encoding: The process of transforming sensory information into a neural code that can be stored in memory.

Encoding-Specificity Principle: The idea that memory is enhanced when retrieval conditions match the original encoding conditions.

ESR Model: A model of memory that proposes three stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Episodic Memory: A type of declarative memory that stores personal experiences and events.

Explicit/Declarative Memory: Memory for facts and events that can be consciously recalled.

Flashbulb Memory (FBM): A vivid memory for a significant event, often accompanied by strong emotional reactions.

Implicit/Nondeclarative Memory: Memory for skills and habits that cannot be consciously recalled.

Levels of Processing Model: A model that suggests deeper levels of processing lead to better memory.

Long-Term Memory (LTM): A memory system with a large capacity and long duration.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): A strengthening of synaptic connections that underlies learning and memory.

Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeatedly rehearsing information to maintain it in short-term memory.

Massed Practice: Cramming information into a single session, which is less effective than distributed practice.

Memory: The ability to encode, store, and retrieve information.

Misinformation Effect: The tendency for false or misleading information to influence memory.

Mnemonic: A memory aid or technique used to improve recall.

Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model: A model of memory that proposes that information is processed simultaneously across multiple interconnected units.

Proactive Interference: The interference of old memories with new learning.

Repression: The unconscious process of pushing unpleasant memories out of consciousness.

Retrieval: The process of accessing and recalling information from memory.

Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that help trigger the recall of memories.

Retroactive Interference: The interference of new learning with the recall of old memories.

Retrograde Amnesia: The inability to remember events that occurred before a brain injury.

Semantic Memory: A type of declarative memory that stores general knowledge and facts about the world.

Sensory Memory: A brief initial stage of memory that holds sensory information for a short period.

Serial-Position Effect: The tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle.

Short-Term Memory (STM): A memory system with a limited capacity and duration.

Source Amnesia: The inability to remember the source of a memory.

Storage: The process of retaining information in memory over time.

Three-Stage Memory Model: A model of memory that proposes three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) Phenomenon: The feeling of knowing the answer to a question but being unable to recall it immediately.

Working Memory: A short-term memory system that actively processes and manipulates information.

Three-Stage Memory Model Diagram

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diagram showing the three stages of memory: sensory memory, shortterm memory, and longterm memory, with arrows indicating the transfer of information between stages.

Major Memory Models

1. Three-Stage Memory Model: This model proposes three distinct stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
2. Levels of Processing Model: This model suggests that deeper levels of processing lead to better memory.
3. Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model: This model proposes that memory is distributed across interconnected networks of neurons.
4. Connectionist Model: Similar to the PDP model, this model emphasizes the importance of interconnected networks in memory.

ESR Model vs. a Computer

The ESR model is often compared to a computer, with encoding analogous to input, storage analogous to data storage, and retrieval analogous to output. However, there are key differences:

• Biological Basis: Unlike computers, human memory is based on biological processes and is influenced by factors such as emotions, motivation, and context.
• Parallel Processing: While computers often process information sequentially, human memory can process multiple pieces of information simultaneously.
• Limited Capacity: Human memory has limitations in terms of capacity and duration, unlike computer memory.
• Context Dependence: Human memory is highly context-dependent, while computer memory is less influenced by context.

Overall, while the ESR model provides a useful framework for understanding memory, it is important to recognize the unique characteristics of human memory and its limitations compared to computer memory.

Sample Answer

Memory and Cognition Concepts

Age-Related Positivity Effect: The tendency for older adults to recall positive memories more readily than negative ones.

Anterograde Amnesia: The inability to form new memories after a brain injury.

Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units to improve memory.

Consolidation: The process of strengthening and stabilizing memories over time.