Abstract
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☐ Briefly introduce the study topic, state the research problem, and describe who or what is impacted by this problem.
☐ Clearly articulate the study purpose and guiding theoretical or conceptual framework of the study.
☐ Provide details about the research methodology, participants, questions, design, procedures, and analysis.
☐ Clearly present the results in relation to the research questions.
☐ State the conclusions to include both the potential implications of the results on and the recommendations for future research and practice.
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 3
Purpose of the Study 4
Theoretical Framework 5
Nature of the Study 7
Research Questions 8
Significance of the Study 9
Definitions of Key Terms 10
Adaptation 10
Employment decision-making 10
Elderly dependency ratio 10
Labor mobility 10
Social Cognitive Theory 10
Self-determination theory 10
Socio-demographic context 11
Transition 11
Summary 11
Chapter 2: Literature Review 12
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework 12
Theme or Subtopic 13
Summary 13
Chapter 3: Research Method 15
Research Methodology and Design 15
Population and Sample 15
Materials or Instrumentation 16
Operational Definitions of Variables 16
Study Procedures 17
Data Collection and Analysis 18
Assumptions 18
Limitations 19
Delimitations 19
Ethical Assurances 19
Summary 20
Chapter 4: Findings 21
XXX of the Data 21
Results 22
Research question 1/hypothesis.Text… 22
Evaluation of the Findings 23
Summary 23
Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions 24
Implications 24
Recommendations for Practice 24
Recommendations for Future Research 25
Conclusions 25
References 26
Appendices 31
Appendix A: XXX 32
Appendix B: XXX 33
List of Tables
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List of Figures
Begin list of figures here…
Chapter 1: Introduction
Since the 1980s, the recorded increase in the percentage of the world’s elderly population (i.e., age 65 years and older; World Health Organization [WHO], 2017) is due to two situations: the increase in life expectancy and decrease in birth rate (Deluga et al., 2018). Retirement is no longer a stage where people spend their time in a continual leisure and relaxation cycle. For most people, retirement is an opportunity to start new ventures or continue what they were doing before retirement (Kojola & Moen, 2016). Beehr and Bozzelli (2016) noted more individuals reaching retirement age are extending their time in the workforce (referred to as bridge employment). Rather than complete withdrawal from the workforce, bridge employment has become a desirable decision for older employees. Aside from this, some workers who have attained retirement age opt to remain in their current employment position. Unfortunately, transitioning to a bridge job can be a debilitating event for some individuals who have invested time in the workforce with the expectation of retiring at a certain age (Carlstedt et al., 2018).
According to Jarvis and Song (2017), one element that affects bridge employment is labor mobility, which occurs in an upward, structured, and predictable fashion, and more mobility may lead to faster wage growth for employees. More importantly, with the exception of a small portion of mid-1980s literature, there is a lack of research on employment decision making. Mobility also signals whether there are sufficient vacancies in and connections between various occupations to allow employees to progress in their careers so they can make desired career transitions. According to Bennett et al. (2016), the term aging workforce means the number of older workers compared to younger workers is increasing. In the United States, there are too few individuals born between 1976 and 1985 to keep up with job opportunities (Brott, 2018), significantly contributing to an aging workforce and subsequent increase in the elderly dependency ratio (i.e., the approximate number of retirees per worker) across the world (Ortman et al., 2014). The benefits associated with labor mobility have affected decisions that employees make in different circumstances. The Baby Boomer generation are between the ages of 57 and 75 and Generation X individuals are fast approaching 60 years of age, so the focus of research has shifted more toward bridge employment (Ortman et al., 2014). The factors that contribute to bridge employment are multifaceted and include the following: earning more money to retire more comfortably, generating supplemental income, feeling productive and engaged, staying physically active, maintaining health insurance coverage, pursuing a dream, and learning new things (Beutell et al., 2020). In theory, the concept of bridge employmentmakes sense for the retired population. For example, older workers have fewer accidents and lower absenteeism and turnover rates and may function as mentors for younger workers; bridge jobs fill shortages created by the decline of participation among young workers, ultimately improving labor market efficiency for employers (Carlstedt et al., 2018).
The construct of retirement is changing. Retirement-age individuals find themselves in a position that requires them to remain in the workforce by either retaining their current job or making the transition to a bridge job. Mazumdar et al. (2018) examined the experience of bridge employment by comparing the expectations of bridge employees to how their expectations play a role in shaping their experience. Findings suggested unmet bridge employee expectations can jeopardize both employer and employee outcomes. As mentioned previously, the different forms of modern retirement can be debilitating for the individual who invests time in the workforce with the expectation of withdrawing at a certain age (Carlstedt et al., 2018). Therefore, complete retirement may not be possible for some individuals. A retiree’s financial circumstances could play a role in determing whether to retire. For senior employees, this uncertainty could make complete workforce withdrawal impossible.
The decision of whether to take bridge employment places retirees’ emotional health and financial well being at risk and is therefore an important decision to make (Beehr & Bozzelli, 2016). Beehr and Bozzelli (2016) also argued varied experiences and expectations make bridge job transitions unique for each person. Retirees’ decisions to reenter the workforce may also impact their family and social roles. Employment decisions and traditional retirement goals are changing (Beehr & Bozzelli, 2016). Survey data on households in the United States concluded bridge employment experiences rarely meet employees’ expectations. Organizations do not adequately acknowledge these experiences as much as they should.
Consequently, bridge employees could experience some cognitive dissonance as a result of incompatibility between their expectations and the experiences they may encounter during the job transition. In the United States, individuals over 55 years of age accounted for approximately 40% of the workforce in 2019 (AARP, 2019) and this is projected to increase (U.S. Census Bureau, 2019; Bureau of Labor Statistics [BLS],) this is projected to increase to approximately 53.85% of Americans over 65 years of age working in the U.S. labor industry by 2024, leading to an increase in the dependency ratio.
Statement of the Problem
The problem I will address in this qualitative case study is the negative impact of the increase of individuals over 65 years of age who seek bridge employment and on the labor force. Job opportunities for the younger worker will become less available as retirees continue to choose to remain in the workforce. Research has shown population aging will negatively affect economic growth, primarily through labor force participation (Maestas et al., 2016). According to Desilver (2019) and Greenwald et al. (2017), more retired individuals, particularly adults over 65 years of age, have successfully transitioned to bridge employment after the traditional retirement age. The projected increase of bridge employment participation to 53.85% among individuals above 65 years old raises an important discussion of why they should remain in the workforce. In a systematic review of follow-up studies, pension income did not contribute significantly to retirees’ well-being, leading to the extension of working life (Centre, 2017). As such, many people find themselves postponing their retirement and seeking bridge employment. According to Breheny et al. (2017), the worker’s situation and attributes, the organization in which the person worked, how satisfying or prestigious the previous job was, and the personal and family relationships of the individuals involved influenced post-retirement work decisions. These factors may explain why individuals find themselves postponing their retirement and instead stepping into bridge employment. Individuals may acquire the bridge job by either maintaining the position the individual held before attaining retirement age or seeking another post (Beehr & Bennett, 2015).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative study was to conceptualize a theoretical framework that addresses the organization, evaluation, and understanding of factors involved in retirement decisions through close examination of how bridge employees’ expectations mold their experiences and ultimately contribute to their decision to remain in the labor force beyond retirement age. Intrinsic and financial motives influence older adults’ decisions to seek bridge jobs after retirement (Alcover, 2017). The receipt of monetary benefits in the form of pension from lifelong employment is a significant event in retirees’ lives. This money is often used for medical bills, healthy nutrition, and ensuring habitable accommodations. Dingeman and Henkens (2014) found most retired adults seeking more work successfully attained bridge employment and werewere more satisfied than full-time retirees not interested in bridge employment. However, there is still uncertainty about whether a retiree will be able to reenter the workforce. A bridge job can be acquired by either maintaining the former position before attaining retirement age or seeking another post (Beehr & Bennett, 2015).
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for the proposed study will be social cognitive theory (SCT). Albert Bandura first conceptualized in the 1960s. Bandura opposed all dualism that might distinguish theself as an entity in an attempt to explain how the self is perceived and how it works. According to Bandura (1986), dualism represents a theory that defines reality as two irreducible factors. According to SCT, people learn from others through observation, imitation, and modeling. This specific theory encompasses memory, attention, and motivation. Bandura defined human functioning as a product of interpersonal influences governed by individuals' behavior and the environmental factors that act on these individuals. Individual efforts have a central role in molding events that occur throughout the course of life.
Social cognitive philosophy remains dedicated to a holistic view of individuality. Bandura insisted individuals are as much an operator when focusing on their past as when undertaking a single way to proceed. Bandura’s (1986) definition of the entity functions through an interconnected theoretical framework termed triadic reciprocal causation. Bandura’s theory has been universally applied to workplace research and learning. For instance, Nabavi (2012) highlighted Bandura’s theory adds a social factor, which posits individuals can learn from observing others to acquire new behavioral conduct. The SCT model comprises three factors that influence behavior: (a) the individual (including how he or she thinks and feels), (b) the individual’s environment, and (c) the behavior itself. According to Bandura, not only does the environment influence a person’s thinking, but their subsequent behavior influences their environment. Specifically, the environment influences how a person thinks and feels, which influences their behavior, and in turn,impacts the environment. Triadic reciprocal causation shows personal agency is psychosocial and functionally dependent on events.
Along with a critical examination of the impact of bridge employment, I also seek to conceptualize a theoretical framework that addresses the organization, evaluation, and understanding of factors involved in retirement decisions. There are various forms of bridge employment; however, the most prevalent form among the retired population is the public sector. The transition from full-time employment to retirement and back to employment rolls is referred to as career bridge employment (Bennett et al., 2016; Hill et al., 2015).
SCT will serve as the theoretical foundation for this study. Bandura’s (1960) research focused on an individual’s career life span that reflects real-life situations and problems. SCT helps to describe the relationship between a person’s behavior and environment. Career bridge employment involves retired workers who have withdrawn their retirement benefits (e.g., their pension) and remain involved in the workforce, either on a full-time or part-time basis. The intentions behind career bridge employment require further analysis, as this type of bridge employment is the most predominant in the public sector. This qualitative design study will emply a descriptive, phenomenological approachbased on lived experiences of bridge employees. Qualitative research is considered the best method for collecting data on post-career experiences. Qualitative analysis also facilitates understanding of how older retirees perform their bridge employment roles (Alcover, 2017). Post-career research favors qualitative approaches with techniques such as interviews (i.e., structured, semistructured, and in-depth), field diaries, and focus groups. The study will focus on the experiences of bridge employees to understand the phenomena. A qualitative method serves as the best approach for studying commonalities across lived experiences.
Research Questions
Research Question 1: What factors influence retirees to seek bridge employment?
Research Question 1a:What intrinsic motives propel retirees to seek bridge employment?
Research Question 1b: What extrinsic motives propel retirees to seek bridge employment?
Research Question 2: What are the experiences of individuals over 65 in the workforce?
Bridge employees often face cognitive dissonance when there is disagreement betweenexpectations and experiences. When employees return to the workforce after retirement, the work structure and arrangement often incites disappointment. Mazumdar et al. (2018) suggested both the employer and employee struggle to balance these unmet expectations. Mazumdar et al. (2018) also examined why bridge employment arrangements may result in adverse outcomes and found bridge employees hold tremendously high expectations when they reenter the workforce, but their experiences often leave them underwhelmed, resulting in undesirable outcomes for the bridge employee and the employer. Highlighting potential factors that could lead to conflict in the workplace may enhance working relations between bridge employees and employers.
Significance of the Study
The decision to retire comes with life-changing implications regarding finances, health, and psychological well-being later in life. This research will describe the challenges hindering bridge employees from transitioning into full retirement. The study will also seek to understand how labor market mobility and organizational structures lead to bridge employment. The research will show how individuals undertaking post-careers encounter challenges in adapting to complete retirement. Researchon career bridge employment is still in its initial stages and a reasonably new concept (Hill et al., 2015; Wang & Shi, 2015 ). Nevertheless, the study of bridge employment is an expanding area of research. The retirees’ motivation to transition into bridge employment needs to be understood from a theoretical perspective to address the situation and rising rates of bridge employment.
These concepts are relevant to changes generated in the workforce, particularly regarding retirement decisions. The goal of this research is to understand retirees’ adaptation process and transition to becoming active agents who choose according to their life conditions and alternatives. Segaro et al. (2014) implied an adaptation to new dynamics is presented at the levels of family, social, and work domains. Research has been directed towardinvestigating alternatives or retirement accommodations to maintain human resource capacity. The decision to pursue bridge employment is an important factor. One potential benefit of the proposed research is older adults may be more effective at bridge employment transitions, thereby reducing retirement anxiety. Additionally, societal trends and situations may also play a role in post-retirement decisions (Alcover & Topa, 2018).
Definitions of Key Terms
Adaptation. An adaptation is a change or the process by which an organism becomes better suited for new dyanmics presented in an environment (Segaro et al., 2014).
Employee Decision Making. Employee decision making is the process of selecting the best possible option in a given situation (Hamstra et al., 2019).
Elderly Dependency Ratio. The elderly dependency ratio indicates the ratio between the number of persons ages 65 and over (i.e., the general age of economic inactivity) and the number of persons between the ages of 15 and 65 (WHO, 2017; Wu, 2020).
Labor Market Mobility. Labor market mobility refers to how easily workers can move between different jobs in the economy (Jeffers, 2019).
Social Cognitive Theory. SCT provides a framework for understanding how the environment actively shapes people and how people actively shape their environment (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020).
Self-Determination Theory . Self-determination theory represents a broad framework for the study of human motivation and personality (Rigby & Ryan, 2018).
Sociodemographic Context. Sociodemographic context refers to socioeconomic information expressed statistically, including employment, education, income, marriage rates, and birth and death rates (O’Donoghue et al., 2017).
Transition. Transition is the processes or a period of changing from one state or condition to another (Rawson & Phillipson, 2020).
Summary
In summary, bridge employment allows older retired citizens who still require an income to maintain their livelihood with the opportunity to earn the additional income they need to maintain their perceived level of comfort. Bridge employment introduces specific challenges. Specifically, many bridge employees have negative and underwhelming experiences with bridge employment (Gosselin, 2018), likely because their experiences often fall short of their expectations (Cahill & Quinn, 2020). This gap between expectation and experience places both the employer and the employee in a difficult situation. However, considering the challenging sociodemographic elements and global pensions systems, bridge employees are more privileged than the elderly population who rely only on pension and welfare tokens. Therefore, retirees in bridge employment. Therefore, initial training to acquaint retirees in bridge employement with organizational objectives and expectations may be necessary to facilitate their decision-making process.
Chapter 2 provides the reader with a summary of the purpose statement to understand the concept of bridge employment and discusses a theoretical framework that addresses the organization, evaluation, and understanding of factors involved in retirement decisions. A review of recent literature on retirement-age employees transitioning to bridge employment is also presented. There is a large body of literature on retirement research, but the concept of bridge employment is newer and receiving greater global interest, particularly in the United States (Cahill & Quinn, 2020).
Chapter 2: Literature Review
The purpose of this qualitative study is to better understand what motivates retires to seek bridge employment and to assess their experiences and their expectations. At retirement age, there is a misalignment between individuals’ although by retirement age, people have accumulated a great deal of work and life experiences. Their ability to reenter the workforce and is often met with resistance and therefore does not accurately reflect their work and life experience, which is manifested in the practice of employment exclusion, professional route restriction, and career advancement. This phenomenon results in the professional marginalization of older people, limiting their field of activity mainly to family and household domains, which entails negative consequences for the development of individual organizations, branches of science and production, and the social and labor potential of modern society (Alcover & Topa, 2018). Studies on retirees’ social and labor potential by age include not only an analysis of internal factors (i.e., a person's ability to work), but also external resources (e.g., sociostructural, integration, and sociocultural) that can either facilitate or limit a person’s ability to work. Consideration of these factors takes into account complex social interactions between employees, which are of particular importance for the work activities of older people exposed to social pressure to remain in the work force. Generational competition for jobs can exacerbate the social climate in an aging society. In addition, it is obvious that the aging of the population will raise the problem associated with the creation of a fundamentally new system for assessing human capital. These problems are increasingly being brought to the fore. The factor "age" here is most likely supplanted by such a factor as "health", and the factor "intellectual capital" of workers plays the most important role in assessing human resources. Accordingly, the sociological analysis of investigating the causes and mechanisms of above mentioned factors that facilitate or limit labor abilities are updated (Sullivan & Al Ariss, 2018). I used 25 articles from peer-reviewed academic journals published over the last 5 years (between 2017 and 2021), which contained a critical review of the literature on bridge employment.
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
The concept of "social and labor potential of old-age retirees" includes two substantive components: structural and dynamic (Topa et al., 2018). The structural component captures the accumulation of the employees formal employment qualifications, institutionally confirmed competencies, and informally acquired knowledge and skills. The dynamic component considers both the accumulation and implementation of experience in the form of professional and social practices as they vary by age. The concept as a whole takes a new approach to gerontological problems, building a concept of the social and labor potential of those who represent the older generation based on a differentiated approach to the aging process (Topa et al., 2018). The concept of social and labor potential of old-age retirees is a multiparadigm approach. The structural and functional approach of this concept focuses on social inequality in society’s professional and business spheres, which constrains realization of the social and labor potential of older workers. One study by (Fasbender et al., 2017) used a phenomenological approach to analyze social and labor potential of retirees through the process of the social construction of reality (Fasbender et al., 2017). The constructivist approach contributes to the study of social stereotypes of working retirees. The employers' motives underlying discriminatory practices against old-age retirees are based on a whole set of stereotypes: 1) the majority of the elderly have poor health; 2) the labor of older workers is not efficient, professional activity is characterized by low temporal indicators; 3) mental qualities deteriorate with age, the elderly person is not capable of learning and retraining; 4) the elderly worker is conservative and is a brake on any innovation. These stereotypes capture a simplified image of an elderly worker (Osman et al., 2013).
According to Platts et al. (2019), historical and sociological perspectives focus on how different aspects of society shape the ways in which elderly prople function in society-both socially and professionally. Gerontological practices that facilitated the realization of the older generation’s social and labor potential across history included: (1) political and administrative, (2) consulting , (3) cultural and broadcasting (Platts et al., 2019). Additionally, respecting the older generation served as the basis for realizing their potential. In modern society, the importance of realizing the social and labor potential of old-age retirees increases for activities such as consulting work (Frins et al., 2017). Conversely, the devaluation of experience led to a decline in the prestige of the older generation (Frins et al., 2017). Böheim (2017) proposed despite increased social significance, mentoring traditions have been lost, and the older generation’s professional consulting and expert activities are not systematized. At present, the traditions of mentoring have been lost, and the educational and socializing functions are not performed by workers with extensive professional experience and seniority. Practical experience of solving everyday work problems by older professionals is perceived as outdated. On the other hand, the revival of mentoring practices is hindered by competition in the production sphere, when assistance to a young employee in adaptation is perceived by an older employee as preparing a person for his place, which fits into the format of the saying "dug a hole for himself." The disconnect between the potential benefit of integrating retirement-aged professionals into the business world due to higher educational levels, greater professional knowledge, abilities, skills, and work experience, and barriers to their integration into the workforce has become increasingly salient (Böheim, 2017). Retirement age is consistently characterized as a period of career “hopelessness” due to an increased inconsistency between employment status and qualifications of working retirees. Furthermore, strategies for further development of human capital working retirees (i.e., educational, informational, or adaptation) are currently ineffective. Thus, retirees encounter significant challenges in seeking bridge employment (Pilipiec et al., 2020).
Conceptual Bases for Realizing the Labor Potential of Old-Age Retirees
The number of years lived and physiological and psychological characteristics determine group membership in the elderly sociodemographic. Significant, social changes occur in the aging person, for example withdrawing from paid employment. The role of social changes on the aging process is significant and also strengthens the influence of other components on the aging process (Smith, 2016). To a large extent, old age is becoming a sociocultural artifact, representing a period in modern life that should be evaluated not only by duration, but also by importance (Mazumdar et al., 2018). Sociogerontological theories seek to explain the life of an elderly person from a sociocontextual perspective rather than a medical perspective. Increases in the elderly population, the number of elderly persons with higher education attainment, and the development and advancement of medicine highlight the importance of realizing the older generation’s social and labor potential and their involvement in public life. However, departure from traditional social foundations, the decrease in the authority of the older generation, and socioeconomic transformations emerging in recent decades have contributed to the impaired social status and mobility of the elderly, universally rendering their experience and knowledge useless. As such, it is important to create a new concept of the older generation’s social and labor potential using a differentiated by age to account for the compensatory biological (support of health) and limiting social mechanisms to facilitate their integration into the workforce. The concept offer a more comprehensive examination of the older generation’s professional mobility who choose the career paths based on their own labor potential (Alcover, 2017).
The Potential and Expediency of Continuing Labor Activity Among the Older Generation
A phenomenological model of the preservation of the social and labor potential of retirees is based on the exclusion of the finalist ideas about age-related changes, which fix the aging process in terms of the deterioration of all basic vital parameters of a person. The potential and expediency of continuing the older generation’s labor activities are due to structural changes in the labor market of an aging society. Professional and life experience provide older people with the opportunity to preserve and realize their social and labor potential. An additional advantage for older workers is that they tend to experience a shift in their interests and values to the sphere of work and industrial relations (Beehr & Bennett, 2017).
Displacement of Retirees’ Interests and Values in the Labor and Industrial Relations Spheres. Gerontological practices that facilitate the realization of the older generation’s social and labor potential include: (1) political and managerial, (2) consulting and expert, and (3) cultural and broadcasting. The realization of the social and labor potential of older people often arise from the demands and needs of society (social welfare, service and health care) (Dingemans & Henkens, 2019). During transitional periods into the formation of an market economy, the importance of consulting and expert activities of older workers increases. Mentoring is one way the social and labor potential of old-age retirees is recognized. Research (Zhan et al., 2019) has shown an increased need to renew of the institution of elderly people mentoring, both on the part of younger people and the older generation for the transference of knowledge and experience. However, mentoring traditions have been lost, and workers with extensive professional experience and seniority are now serving less as educational and social guides. Perspectives of older professionals with practical experience solving everyday work problems are perceived as outdated. Moreover, competition in the organizations sphere has hindered the revival of mentoring practices, yet older employees perceive assistance to an adapting, younger employees as preparing them for their place. Results from labor market research have indicated that elderly population are not particularly involved in either consulting or expert activities in the professional space (Zhan et al., 2019).
Reasons Constraining Retirees’ Labor Motivation. The study of the reasons hindering the motivation of work of persons of retirement age at the enterprises of the service sector showed that among the three main reasons noted by the respondents are: • the inability to change their specialty (type of activity) or improve their qualifications - 16.5%;
• caring for family members (grandchildren, sick people, etc.) - 15.6%;
• health status (it became difficult to do work) -14.7%, etc. The survey confirmed that at the present stage, more than 30% of persons of retirement age would like to work after receiving the right to a pension. This is not surprising, since the main source of income for the majority of the elderly population is still pension, the average level of which is unacceptably low (Wang & Shultz, 2019). At the same time, a certain - the most active - part of pensioners is making efforts to search for additional income, including mastering new areas of activity, such as business. But further, the presence of additional jobs cannot fundamentally change the prevailing trend - the real incomes of the bulk of the half of the population hardly increase. In this situation, it is especially important not only to reform the pension system so that people of working age can themselves influence the size of their future pension, but also to search for new forms of using the potential of those who have already reached retirement age, but are willing and able to continue working. Economic considerations about the need to expand the employment of able-bodied pensioners are reinforced by considerations of a social nature. Gerontology testifies that a sudden cessation of employment often causes the so-called "retirement crisis" in older people, associated with a change in lifestyle, with a deterioration in the socioeconomic status that has developed over the course of decades. Indeed, before retirement, an employee has a high level of labor activity, multilateral professional relations, the opportunity to realize his professional experience and qualifications, and a satisfactory financial situation. After retirement, complete professional inactivity sets in, habitual ties with the work collective cease, and the financial situation worsens. After retirement, complete professional inactivity sets in, habitual ties with the work collective cease, and the financial situation worsens (Wang & Wanberg, 2017).
Factors and incentives for employment of retirees. The involvement of retirees in labor activity, as revealed by numerous surveys of the population, is rather forced. According to Wang et al. (2018), the employment of retirees is explained primarily by the insufficient volume of pension payments, and over 25 years, those who agree with this opinion have increased by 1.5 times. Earlier studies indicate a similar reason for retirees to be active. The data show that the priority motive for continuing to work after retirement is the low level of retirement benefits, which is cited by half of the retirees. However, not only material incentives become the reasons to continue working after retirement, they also highlight the need for communication, the desire to benefit society, the demand for and involvement in social and professional relations. As noted in their research (Smaliukiene & Tvaronavičienė, 2017), for many retirees it is equally important to preserve the social status reached by adulthood, from which both the respect of others and the level of wages follow. People often choose to receive a pension and continue to work as before, when there is an opportunity to receive a pension and continue to work. The reasons for the termination of work upon reaching the retirement age are ill health and fatigue, since they predetermine the ability of an elderly person to work. The better the health status of a person, the higher the level of economic activity, other things being equal.
In addition to the factors noted, the specifics of the labor market also affect the decision of retirees about the possibility or impossibility of continuing to work. According to Zitikyte (2020), a higher level of employment is observed among retirees living in urban areas. It is here that the labor market makes it possible to diversify retirement transfers, while in the countryside most of the elderly stop working due to the lack of demand from the local (predominantly rural) labor market. Realization of the opportunity to work in cities is the result of weak competition for jobs in certain sectors of the economy (mainly in the social sphere, the military-industrial complex, housing and communal services, science), where a high proportion of older workers is concentrated. Thus, as the survey of sociological studies has shown, the motivation for employment of retirees is primarily formed under the influence of supply in the labor market. retirees who continue to work after retirement justify such a work strategy primarily from the standpoint of personal needs and opportunities. Labor supply, on the one hand, is determined by the level of pension provision, on the other hand, it is limited by the state of health of retirees. One can say that the current level of pensions allows leaving the labor market after the onset of retirement age only for those individuals whose health level no longer allows them to continue working (Zhan et al., 2018).
The demand for labor of the older generation, to a lesser extent, determines their employment in the labor market. The labor activity of persons of retirement age is considered in the research as a tool to mitigate the expected labor shortage. At the same time, a number of works emphasize that in the labor market, the efficiency and competitiveness of workers of retirement age is extremely low, therefore, to ensure the effective use of their labor, additional measures and investments will be required. This approach to the labor activity of retirees provokes age discrimination and reduces the demand for their labor. In addition, in recent years, state policy has contributed to the formation of labor activity of persons of retirement age ("new pension formula", introduction of criminal liability for unjustified refusal to hire and unjustified dismissal of workers at pre-retirement age, organization of retraining, assistance in employment, etc.). Also, the widespread early retirement pension system creates additional incentives for older people to leave the labor market later (Ameriks et al., 2020).
The employment of retirees in the United States increased until 2015, when the share of working retirees was 36% of the total number of retirees (Sewdas et al., 2017). With the adoption of the federal law providing for the non-indexation of pensions for working retirees, the trend has changed. Only in the first year of the implementation of this law, 12.8% of retirees left the formal labor market. Some of the working retirees went into the shadow sector, not wanting to lose the increase in their pension. These facts indicate that the employment of the older generation is not directly related to the aging of the population; it is not influenced by demographic factors. To assess their impact, correlation matrices were built between the share of working retirees and selected indicators characterizing supply and demand in the labor market. As shown by the results obtained, the employment of retirees depends to a greater extent on the level of pension provision, which is fully consistent with various sociological studies of the labor behavior of the older generation. Moreover, the level of pension provision is considered from the point of view of both the level of replacement by the pension of the employee's lost earnings (replacement rate), and the level of social benefits (the ratio of the pension to the subsistence minimum of a pensioner). In the first case, a strong direct correlation was revealed, in the second, a strong inverse. In other words, the higher the level of replacement for lost income, the more working retirees who want to maintain their previous level of material security (Lim et al., 2018). At the same time, an increase in the level of pensions reduces the financial incentive to continue working. Therefore, to stimulate the labor activity of retirees, it is necessary not only to increase the size of the pension, but to raise it commensurate with the average wage in the labor market (Naruetharadhol et al., 2021).
Summary
The literature review shows that retirement, economic and social behavior of older people, their activity and motivations to seek bridge employment and their expectations cannot be explained only by the impact of socioeconomic living conditions, as well as objective socio-demographic characteristics of older people. An important role in the regulation of their behavior, activity and adaptation belongs to the subjective factor - the system of value orientations and personality attitudes, which reflect the fundamental economic, social and psychological needs of a person and which mediates, and very noticeably, the impact of objective factors. There is a noticeable gap between the economic and social needs of old-age pensioners, on the one hand, and the real satisfaction of these needs, on the other. This gap is most clearly manifested in persons of the first retirement five-year period, who are still undergoing the stage of adaptation to the status and social roles of pensioners, but it occurs, albeit to a lesser extent, in persons of all older age groups.
As shown by the studies made by researchers in gerontological sphere, the employment of pensioners depends to a greater extent on the level of pension provision, which is fully consistent with various sociological studies of the labor behavior of the older generation. Moreover, the level of pension provision is considered from the point of view of both the level of replacement by the pension of the employee's lost earnings (replacement rate), and the level of social benefits (the ratio of the pension to the subsistence minimum of a pensioner).
The main indicator of the rationality and balance of the way of life of people of retirement age is the level of their social activity, primarily labor, social and household, i.e. activity aimed at meeting not only the needs of the elderly themselves in socially significant, useful activities, but also the needs, interests of society as a whole, its individual institutions. The level of social activity varies significantly in different groups of older people. There is a wide range of its demographic, economic, social and psychological factors, which are inherent in a certain interconnectedness and hierarchy. Old-age retirees are undoubtedly the segment of the population that has the highest demands on, and is very dependent on, welfare, service and health care systems. However, the idea of retirees as a socially passive group as a whole is incorrect, although there are separate groups of elderly and even more often elderly people who are only an object of support and assistance from the state, public organizations, families, but themselves for various reasons, mainly associated with health, are unable to fulfill any significant social roles. As the entire study shows, the elderly population in the aggregate should be considered, first of all, as a subject of activity, and the main task of social demography in this area is to study the prerequisites of active old age, to identify those factors (both individual, personal, and related to the social environment) that contribute to just such a course of this late period of the life cycle.
Chapter 3: Research Method
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☐ Begin with an introduction and restatement of the problem and purpose statements verbatim.
☐ Provide a brief overview of the contents of this chapter, including a statement that identifies the research methodology and design.
Research Methodology and Design
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☐ Describe the research methodology and design. Elaborate upon their appropriateness in relation to the study problem, purpose, and research questions.
☐ Identify alternative methodologies and designs and indicate why they were determined to be less appropriate than the ones selected. Do not simply list and describe research methodologies and designs in general.
Population and Sample
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☐ Describe the population, including the estimated size and relevant characteristics.
☐ Explain why the population is appropriate, given the study problem, purpose, and research questions.
☐ Describe the sample that will be (proposal) or was (manuscript) obtained.
☐ Explain why the sample is appropriate, given the study problem, purpose, and research questions.
☐ Explain how the sampling guidelines associated with the chosen methodology and design will be (proposal) or were (manuscript) followed. For qualitative studies, evidence must be presented that saturation will be (proposal) or was (manuscript) reached. For quantitative studies, a power analysis must be reported to include the parameters (e.g., effect size, alpha, beta, and number of groups) included, and evidence must be presented that the minimum required sample size will be (proposal) or was (manuscript) reached.
☐ Describe how the participants will be (proposal) or were (manuscript) recruited (e.g., email lists from professional organizations, flyers) and/or the data will be (proposal) or were (manuscript) obtained (e.g., archived data, public records) with sufficient detail so the study could be replicated.
Materials or Instrumentation
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☒ Describe the instruments (e.g., tests, questionnaires, observation protocols) that will be (proposal) or were (manuscript) used, including information on their origin and evidence of their reliability and validity.
☐ Describe in detail any field testing or pilot testing of instruments to include their results and any subsequent modifications.
☐ Include evidence permission was granted to use the instrument(s) in an appendix.
Operational Definitions of Variables
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☐ For quantitative and mixed methods studies, identify how each variable will be (proposal) or was (manuscript) used in the study. Use terminology appropriate for the selected statistical test (e.g., independent/dependent, predictor/criterion, mediator, moderator).
☐ Base the operational definitions on published research and valid and reliable instruments.
☐ Identify the specific instrument that will be (proposal) or was (manuscript) used to measure each variable.
☐ Describe the level of measurement of each variable (e.g., nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio), potential scores for each variable (e.g., the range [0–100] or levels [low, medium, high]), and data sources. If appropriate, identify what specific scores (e.g., subscale scores, total scores) will be (proposal) or were (manuscript) included in the analysis and how they will be (proposal) or were (manuscript) derived (e.g., calculating the sum, difference, average).
Study Procedures
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☐Describe the exact steps that will be (proposal) or were (manuscript) followed to collect the data, addressing what data as well as how, when, from where, and from whom those data will be (proposal) or were (manuscript) collected in enough detail the study can be replicated.
Data Collection and Analysis
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☐ Describe the strategies that will be (proposal) or were (manuscript) used to code and/or analyze the data, and any software that will be (proposal) or was (manuscript) used.
☐ Ensure the data that will be (proposal) or were (manuscript) collected and the analysis can be used to answer the research questions and/or test the hypotheses with the ultimate goal of addressing the identified problem.
☐ Use proper terminology in association with each design/analysis (e.g., independent variable and dependent variable for an experimental design, predictor and criterion variables for regression).
☐For quantitative studies, describe the analysis that will be (proposal) or was (manuscript) used to test each hypothesis. Provide evidence the statistical test chosen is appropriate to test the hypotheses and the data meet the assumptions of the statistical tests.
☐For qualitative studies, describe how the data will be (proposal) or were (manuscript) processed and analyzed, including any triangulation efforts. Explain the role of the researcher.
☐For mixed methods studies, include all of the above.
Assumptions
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☐ Discuss the assumptions along with the corresponding rationale underlying them.
Limitations
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☐ Describe the study limitations.
☐ Discuss the measures taken to mitigate these limitations.
Delimitations
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☐ Describe the study delimitations along with the corresponding rationale underlying them.
☐ Explain how these research decisions relate to the existing literature and theoretical/conceptual framework, problem statement, purpose statement, and research questions.
Ethical Assurances
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☐ Confirm in a statement the study will (proposal) or did (manuscript) receive approval from Northcentral University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) prior to data collection.
☐If the risk to participants is greater than minimal, discuss the relevant ethical issues and how they will be (proposal) or were (manuscript) addressed.
☐ Describe how confidentiality or anonymity will be (proposal) or was (manuscript) achieved.
☐ Identify how the data will be (proposal) or were (manuscript) securely stored in accordance with IRB requirements.
☐ Describe the role of the researcher in the study. Discuss relevant issues, including biases as well as personal and professional experiences with the topic, problem, or context. Present the strategies that will be (proposal) or were (manuscript) used to prevent these biases and experiences from influencing the analysis or findings.
☐ In the dissertation manuscript only, include the IRB approval letter in an appendix.
Summary
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☐ Summarize the key points presented in the chapter.
☐ Logically lead the reader to the next chapter on the findings of the study.
Chapter 4: Findings
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☐ Begin with a brief overview of the purpose of the study and the organization of the chapter.
☐ Organize the entire chapter around the research questions/hypotheses.
XXX of the Data
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Checklist:
☐ For qualitative studies, clearly identify the means by which the trustworthiness of the data was established. Discuss credibility (e.g., triangulation, member checks), transferability (e.g., the extent to which the findings are generalizable to other situations), dependability (e.g., an in-depth description of the methodology and design to allow the study to be repeated), and confirmability (e.g., the steps to ensure the data and findings are not due to participant and/or researcher bias).
☐ For quantitative studies, explain the extent to which the data meet the assumptions of the statistical test and identify any potential factors that might impact the interpretation of the findings. Provide evidence of the psychometric soundness (i.e., adequate validity and reliability) of the instruments from the literature as well as in this study (as appropriate). Do not merely list and describe all the measures of validity and reliability.
☐ Mixed methods studies should include discussions of the trustworthiness of the data as well as validity and reliability.
Results
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Checklist:
☐ Briefly discuss the overall study. Organize the presentation of the results by the research questions/hypotheses.
☐ Objectively report the results of the analysis without discussion, interpretation, or speculation.
☐ Provide an overview of the demographic information collected. It can be presented in a table. Ensure no potentially identifying information is reported.
Research question 1/hypothesis. Text…
☐ Report all the results (without discussion) salient to the research question/hypothesis. Identify common themes or patterns.
☐Use tables and/or figures to report the results as appropriate .
☐ For quantitative studies, report any additional descriptive information as appropriate. Identify the assumptions of the statistical test and explain how the extent to which the data met these assumptions was tested. Report any violations and describe how they were managed as appropriate. Make decisions based on the results of the statistical analysis. Include relevant test statistics, p values, and effect sizes in accordance with APA requirements.
☐For qualitative studies ,describe the steps taken to analyze the data to explain how the themes and categories were generated. Include thick descriptions of the participants’ experiences. Provide a comprehensive and coherent reconstruction of the information obtained from all the participants.
☐ For mixed methods studies, include all of the above.
Evaluation of the Findings
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☐ Interpret the results in light of the existing research and theoretical or conceptual framework (as discussed in Chapters 1 and 2). Briefly indicate the extent to which the results were consistent with existing research and theory.
☐ Organize this discussion by research question/hypothesis.
☐ Do not draw conclusions beyond what can be interpreted directly from the results.
☐ Devote approximately one to two pages to this section.
Summary
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Checklist:
☐ Summarize the key points presented in the chapter.
Sample Solution