Full Answer Section

James’ Theory of Emotion

James’ theory of emotion is the view that emotions are caused by our interpretation of our physiological changes. For example, James’ theory of emotion would say that we feel fear because we interpret our racing heart and sweaty palms as signs that we are in danger.

James’ Five Adjectives to Describe Consciousness

James used the following five adjectives to describe consciousness:

• Personal: Consciousness is a subjective experience that is unique to each individual.
• Continuous: Consciousness is a continuous stream of experience that does not have any breaks in it.
• Selective: Consciousness is selective in that it focuses on some aspects of our experience and ignores others.
• Intentional: Consciousness is intentional in that it is directed towards objects and events in the world around us.
• Transient: Consciousness is transient in that it is constantly changing.

G. Stanley Hall

G. Stanley Hall was the first person to hold a Ph.D. in psychology, and he was the first president of the American Psychological Association. He was also one of the founders of the child study movement.

Mary Whiton Calkins

Mary Whiton Calkins was a pioneer in psychology who made significant contributions to the fields of memory, self-psychology, and emotion. She worked with William James and Hugo Münsterberg at Harvard, but she was denied a Ph.D. because she was a woman.

Law of Effect

The law of effect is a principle of learning that states that behaviors that are followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors that are followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated. The law of effect foreshadows behaviorism without really being behavioristic because it emphasizes the importance of consequences in determining behavior.

Francis Sumner and Kenneth Clark

Francis Sumner was the first African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology. He was a student of G. Stanley Hall and a mentor to Kenneth Clark.

Kenneth Clark was a psychologist who is best known for his research on race and prejudice. He is also known for his work on the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case, which ruled that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.

Role of Sumner and Clark in 20th Century U.S. History

Sumner and Clark played an important role in 20th century U.S. history by their work on race and prejudice. Sumner’s work helped to pave the way for other African American psychologists, and Clark’s work helped to advance the civil rights movement.

Conclusion

William James, John Dewey, Mary Whiton Calkins, Francis Sumner, and Kenneth Clark were all important figures in the history of psychology. They made significant contributions to the field and helped to shape our understanding of the human mind.