Full Answer Section

1. The relationship between Ethnic Studies and standardized testing and graduation rates is complex and multifaceted. Research suggests that culturally relevant curricula, like Ethnic Studies, can positively impact student engagement, academic achievement, and a sense of belonging. This increased engagement can lead to improved attendance, higher grades, and ultimately, better graduation rates. Conversely, standardized tests, which often lack cultural relevance and may contain inherent biases, can sometimes fail to accurately assess the knowledge and abilities of students from diverse backgrounds. Some argue that an overemphasis on standardized testing can narrow the curriculum, potentially marginalizing subjects like Ethnic Studies.

   A potential remedy involves a more holistic approach to assessment that goes beyond standardized tests. This could include incorporating culturally responsive assessments, project-based learning, portfolios, and other measures that better reflect the diverse skills and knowledge of all students. Furthermore, integrating Ethnic Studies into the curriculum can provide students with a more relevant and empowering educational experience, which can, in turn, positively influence their academic trajectory and graduation rates.

2. Based on what we’ve discussed, some student concerns regarding Chicano Studies then (late 1960s) versus now might show both continuity and evolution.

   • Then: Key concerns revolved around the very establishment and recognition of Chicano history and culture within the curriculum. Students fought for courses that reflected their experiences, histories, and contributions, challenging the dominant Eurocentric narrative. They also demanded more Chicano teachers and counselors who could serve as role models and advocates. The focus was often on basic access and inclusion within the educational system.

   • Now: While the fight for inclusion and representation continues, student concerns might also encompass the depth, breadth, and relevance of Chicano Studies programs. This could include demands for more specialized courses, greater integration with other disciplines, and a focus on contemporary issues impacting the Chicano community, such as immigration, social justice, and political representation. There might also be concerns about funding, resources, and the potential for these programs to be marginalized or underfunded within educational institutions. The focus might have broadened from basic inclusion to ensuring the ongoing vitality and impact of Chicano Studies in a changing social and political landscape.

3. The push to shut down Mexican-American Studies in Arizona, particularly in Tucson Unified School District (TUSD), was spearheaded by state-level politicians and education officials who argued that the program promoted ethnic resentment, separatism, and violated state law (specifically, Arizona Revised Statute § 15-112). They contended that the curriculum was divisive and indoctrinated students with a particular political ideology.

   Government involvement was significant. The Arizona State Legislature passed HB 2281 in 2010, which prohibited courses that promote resentment toward a race or class of people, are designed primarily for students of a particular ethnic group, or advocate ethnic solidarity instead of treating pupils as individuals. This law was the basis for the state’s Superintendent of Public Instruction, Tom Horne, and later John Huppenthal, to actively pursue the termination of the TUSD Mexican-American Studies program. Legal challenges ensued, and the program was eventually shut down, although a later court ruling found that the law was enacted with discriminatory intent.

4. Drawing from the “What the Hex is Latinx” piece and our discussion:

   • Latino/a: These terms are generally used to refer to people in the United States with origins in Latin America. “Latino” is typically used for males, “Latina” for females, and sometimes “Latin@,” though less common now, was used to be inclusive of individuals who don’t identify within the gender binary.

   • Latinx: This is a more recent, gender-neutral alternative to Latino/a. It aims to be inclusive of individuals with non-binary gender identities. Its usage is more common in academic and activist circles and is still evolving in broader public discourse.

   • Chicano/a: This term historically and primarily refers to people of Mexican descent in the United States. It carries a strong sense of cultural pride, identity, and often a connection to the Chicano Movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which advocated for civil rights and empowerment. While “Chicano” is male and “Chicana” is female, the term often encompasses a shared cultural and political identity within the Mexican-American community.

   • Hispanic: This term generally refers to people, cultures, or languages that are derived from Spain. It emphasizes a shared linguistic heritage rooted in Spanish. While it can overlap with Latino/a, it excludes people from Latin American countries that are not Spanish-speaking, such as Brazil (Portuguese-speaking).

In essence, the choice of terminology often depends on individual preference, cultural context, and the specific nuance one wishes to convey regarding origin, identity, and political consciousness.